Practice Profile: Problem-Oriented Policing

Evidence Rating for Outcomes

Crime & Delinquency | Multiple crime/offense types

Date: This profile was posted on September 16, 2014

These analytic methods are used by police to develop crime prevention and reduction strategies. The practice is rated Promising and led to a significant decline in crime and disorder.

Practice Goals

Problem-oriented policing (POP) is an analytic method used by police to develop strategies that prevent and reduce crime. Under the POP model, police agencies are expected to systematically analyze the problems of a community, search for effective solutions to the problems, and evaluate the impact of their efforts (National Research Council 2004). POP represents police-led efforts to change the underlying conditions at hot spots that lead to recurring crime problems. It also requires police to look past traditional strategies and consider other possible approaches for addressing crime and disorder (Weisburd and Eck 2004). Today, it is one of the most widely used strategies among progressive law enforcement agencies (Weisburd et al. 2010).

Practice Theory

The POP approach was first advanced by Herman Goldstein (1979), who argued that the standard model of policing (which is primarily reactive and incident driven) should be replaced with a more proactive approach to identifying and targeting problems that contribute to crime, disorder, and other community issues. Eck and Spelman (1987) later developed a framework for implementing POP through the use of the SARA (for Scanning, Analysis, Response, and Assessment) model, which is discussed below. SARA is just one of numerous potential methodologies for implementing POP in practice.

Practice Components

POP interventions can take on many different forms and will vary depending on the specific problems being combated. One of the most popular methods for implementing POP in practice is a four-step process known as the SARA model.

In the first step, Scanning, police rely on several different sources to identify and prioritize potential problems associated with crime and disorder in a jurisdiction. This can include identifying problems of concern to the community, confirming that the problem exists, figuring out the consequences of the problem, and determining how frequently the problem occurs.

Once the problem is identified, the next step is Analysis. This stage of the process involves identifying and analyzing relevant data to learn more about the problem, including potentially narrowing its scope and figuring out possible explanations why the problem is occurring. This information is essential for selecting the most effective and appropriate response to the problem, which occurs in the next step.

During the third step, Response, police and their partners select one or more responses or interventions based on the results from the Analysis conducted in the previous step. A response plan is outlined that includes the nature of each response, the specific objectives these responses are intended to achieve, and the responsibilities of the various partners involved in implementing the response. Once the response is selected, it is implemented by the police and their partners.

Finally, the Assessment step involves evaluating whether the responses were implemented in a way that was consistent with the Response plan, and whether the responses achieved their intended effects. Thus, the assessment phase includes both process evaluation and impact evaluation components.

POP approaches can take on a variety of forms. Strategies may focus on crime hot spots or they may target nongeographic concentrations in crime and other problems, including those who commit offenses repeatedly, repeat victims, and repeat times. The key ingredients in POP are the selection of a narrowly defined problem type and the application of a wide range of targeted responses intended to reduce the incidence or severity of that problem type. Other important ingredients include the inclusion of partners outside of the police agency and the central role of data and information in selecting a problem type, analyzing it, evaluating the responses, and adjusting as needed.

POP relies primarily on a diverse range of tightly focused policing strategies, some of which involve traditional law enforcement approaches and some of which involve alternative approaches. POP overlaps to some extent with other recent innovations in policing, including community policing, third-party policing, focused deterrence, and hot spots policing. Nonetheless, POP’s central elements are distinctive. Problem-oriented policing combines the resource targeting strategies of hot spots policing with the diverse approaches of community policing. Community policing draws on a variety of approaches to address crime and disorder issues, including partnerships between police and other organizations and community groups. However, community policing does not necessarily involve the intense degree of focus on a specific problem type like POP. Third-party policing involves the mobilization of third parties to assist the police in solving community problems. Hot spots policing strategies rely mostly on traditional law enforcement approaches. However, police powers and resources are directed toward dealing with a specific crime-ridden area or group of people who commit offenses (National Research Council 2004, 249). Finally, focused deterrence strategies often rely heavily on problem-oriented policing approaches, but they have several distinctive elements that fall outside the most common definitions of POP. A visual representation of the relationship between the diversity of the POP approach and its degree of emphasis compared with other policing strategies, such as community-oriented and hot spots policing, can be found in Weisburd and Eck (2004, 45).

Meta-Analysis Snapshot
	Literature Coverage Dates	Number of Studies	Number of Study Participants
Meta Analysis 1	1989-2006	10	0

Meta Analysis 1

Weisburd and colleagues (2008) looked at the evaluation literature to examine the effects of problem-oriented policing (POP) on crime and disorder. To be included in the review, studies had to meet four criteria: 1) the SARA (for Scanning, Analysis, Response, Assessment) model had to be used for a problem-oriented policing intervention; 2) a comparison group was included in the study; 3) at least one crime or disorder outcome was reported with sufficient data to calculate an effect size; and 4) the unit of analysis could be persons or places.

A comprehensive search of the literature was conducted, including a keyword search, a review of bibliographies of past POP reviews, a hand search of leading journals in the field, and an email to leading policing scholars. After identifying 5,500 articles, only 10 studies were found to meet the inclusion criteria. The 10 studies took place in eight cities across the United States (Jersey City, N.J.; Knoxville, Tenn.; Oakland, Calif.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Atlanta, Ga.; San Diego, Calif.; Philadelphia, Pa.; and a suburban area of Pennsylvania) and six wards in the United Kingdom. Four of the studies were randomized experiments; six were quasi-experimental designs. In addition, four studies were from peer-reviewed journals, two were government reports, three were unpublished reports, and one was a dissertation.

The 10 studies concentrated on various POP interventions. Two of the studies focused on interventions that dealt with reducing probationer/parolee recidivism, two examined drug markets, one looked at vandalism and drinking in a park, one targeted combating crime in hot spots of violence, one addressed school victimization, two focused on interventions targeting problem addresses, and one dealt with overall crime.

The primary outcome of interest was crime or call type. The effect size was calculated as the standardized mean difference. A random effects model was used to examine the results.